The temperature of fat can be obtained with a thermometer, but without that, the following tests offer some guide: (1) Drop in a 118 MEATS few drops of water; if the fat bubbles thereupon, it is over 212°; if it bubbles very smartly, it is over 300°, (2) Drop in a piece of bread and take it out in | minute; if the bread is then crisp, the fat is about 350° or more. (3) The more violent the bubbling when any- thing is put in, the hotter the fat, (4) A thin, filmy, blue smoke arises when the fat is fit for frying; after that, if the fat is further heated, it becomes thicker, until the fat is burning, when there is a dense cloud. (5) Fat, unless it has left off bubbling and is quite still, is never hot enough for frying. These rules are true of all fats, and more or less of all frying. The reason that fat crackles when it is first put on is, that there is generally w^ater in it. This water, being heavier than fat, sinks to the bottom and is converted into steam, and these bubbles of steam escaping up through the fat makes the bubbling. If not moist with water, it would not crackle. When the crackling ceases, it shows simply that the fat is hotter than boiling water, and that the water is evaporated. When you have finished using the fat, pour it into a basin con- taining some hot water. Have more water than fat, and pour the fat in gradually, if it is very hot, or else it will suddenly create a volume of steam; then agitate the fat a little, and let it stand until it is cold. When you next use the fat, take it out in one large cake, and scrape the part next to the water, which will contain impurities. The fat should also be occasionally strained while warm. With regard to the best fat to use, it may be said that, while olive oil is generally considered the best, it is too expensive for gen- eral use, and the taste is not liked by some people. Pure cotton seed oil answers well, and it has but little odor. Mutton fat or drippings is not suitable, as it is apt to leave a tallowy taste and smell, and it cools quickly. For every day use, lard is best, or, lard mixed with clarified beef suet, or the drippings from roast beef, pork or veal. We think, however, that some of the vegetable oils will soon largely supplant the animal fats for frying, and most other cooking pur- poses. There are many advantages and few objections to their use. The fat can be used over and over again. It is generally believed that for this method of frying, several different supplies of fat are needed, one for meat, one for fish, and so on, but if the fat is properly handled and clarified, it will be found that this idea is exaggerated. Fat for frying can be clarified by cutting it up into small piec- es, and putting it into the sauce=pan with just enough water to pre- vent its burning, and then heat it over a slow fire until the bottom THE PKOCESSES AND PKINCIPLES OF COOKING 119 can be seen, then it should be strained; or heat it in [a frying-pan to 285° to 300° F., and then very cautiously sprinkle upon it small quantities of water. The steam carries off the volatile fatty acids which produce the rancidity in such as fish oils, and also removes the neutral, offensive fatty matters that are decomposable by heat.

AI-modernized reading of the original text

The temperature of fat can be obtained with a thermometer, but without that, the following tests offer some guide: (1) Drop in a few drops of water; if the fat bubbles thereupon, it is over 212°; if it bubbles very smartly, it is over 300°, (2) Drop in a piece of bread and take it out in | minute; if the bread is then crisp, the fat is about 350° or more. (3) The more violent the bubbling when anything is put in, the hotter the fat, (4) A thin, filmy, blue smoke arises when the fat is fit for frying; after that, if the fat is further heated, it becomes thicker, until the fat is burning, when there is a dense cloud. (5) Fat, unless it has left off bubbling and is quite still, is never hot enough for frying. These rules are true of all fats, and more or less of all frying. The reason that fat crackles when it is first put on is, that there is generally water in it. This water, being heavier than fat, sinks to the bottom and is converted into steam, and these bubbles of steam escaping up through the fat makes the bubbling. If not moist with water, it would not crackle. When the crackling ceases, it shows simply that the fat is hotter than boiling water, and that the water is evaporated. When you have finished using the fat, pour it into a basin containing some hot water. Have more water than fat, and pour the fat in gradually, if it is very hot, or else it will suddenly create a volume of steam; then agitate the fat a little, and let it stand until it is cold. When you next use the fat, take it out in one large cake, and scrape the part next to the water, which will contain impurities. The fat should also be occasionally strained while warm. With regard to the best fat to use, it may be said that, while olive oil is generally considered the best, it is too expensive for general use, and the taste is not liked by some people. Pure cotton seed oil answers well, and it has but little odor. Mutton fat or drippings is not suitable, as it is apt to leave a tallowy taste and smell, and it cools quickly. For every day use, lard is best, or, lard mixed with clarified beef suet, or the drippings from roast beef, pork or veal. We think, however, that some of the vegetable oils will soon largely supplant the animal fats for frying, and most other cooking purposes. There are many advantages and few objections to their use. The fat can be used over and over again. It is generally believed that for this method of frying, several different supplies of fat are needed, one for meat, one for fish, and so on, but if the fat is properly handled and clarified, it will be found that this idea is exaggerated. Fat for frying can be clarified by cutting it up into small pieces, and putting it into the sauce-pan with just enough water to prevent its burning, and then heat it over a slow fire until the bottom THE PKOCESSES AND PKINCIPLES OF COOKING 119 can be seen, then it should be strained; or heat it in [a frying-pan to 285° to 300° F., and then very cautiously sprinkle upon it small quantities of water. The steam carries off the volatile fatty acids which produce the rancidity in such as fish oils, and also removes the neutral, offensive fatty matters that are decomposable by heat.

The household cook book